The cryogenic treatment for mould steel AISI D2 steel

     D2 steel is austenitizing at 1040 ° C, holding time are 10 minutes, 20 minutes and 30 minutes, and then the oil quenching, and cryogenic treatment.
     After testing can find the following points:
     Around cryogenic treatment hardness changes is not obvious, indicating that mould steel AISI D2 steel retained austenite is very little at 1040 ° C quenching.
     When cryogenic treatment time is 4 hours and 8 hours the hardness of the samples increase the amount is larger, showed that cryogenic treatment time is too short, the transformation of residual austenite is not completely. The processing time in 4~8 hours, transformation basically completed.
     After 2 hours of tempering at 500 °C, D2 steel hardness decreased obviously. Compared with the hardness after cryogenic treatment, the difference between the maximum amount can reach 6.8HRC. This is because quenching martensite transformation into tempered martensite in the process of tempering, matrix hardness reducing lead to material hardness decreased. May also be because the tempering temperature is too high, the transformation of martensite is too big, and the presence of grain growth by caused.

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The applicable scope of tool steel 1.2080 steel

    Tool steel 1.2080 steel belongs to high carbon high chromium martensitic steel, is widely used for cold working die steel. The steel has good hardenability, wear resistance, thermal processing. The carbide distribution is better in the steel, can be used to make the cold work die of complex shape and frequent work. Such as cold die punch, thread rolling die, drawing die, die material, powder metallurgy die, woodworking cutting tools, cold cutting scissors drill sleeve and gauge ect.
    In development, we repeated the exploration and experiment, formulate reasonable smelting process and special mold and the forging process, the 1.2080 die steel to achieve uniform, in addition to the standard material processing, bold innovation, the double knife chip of new technology, greatly improved the efficiency, shorten cycle, reduce cost.

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The application of alloy structural steel 4140

    Alloy structural steel 4140, similar to the performance of 4135, due to increased carbon and chromium content of C Cr, thus the strength and hardenability are better than that of 4135 steel after quenching and tempering, have higher fatigue strength and resistance to repeated shocks, low temperature impact toughness is good, and no obvious temper brittleness, generally used in the steel after quenching and tempering.
    4140 alloy steel generally used in the manufacture strength is higher than 4135 and section size is larger important parts, such as axle, gear, connecting rod, gear box, gear, supercharger engine cylinder, spring, spring clip, 1200~2000mm petroleum drill stem joint, fishing tools and instead of the nickel-containing higher modulation steel.

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The special heat treatment of die steel 1.2379

    The cryogenic treatment of die steel 1.2379:
In order to obtain the highest hardness and dimensional stability, the mold immediately after quenching and cryogenic -70 to -80 DEG C, keep 3-4 hours, and then in the tempering treatment, the hardness of the tool or mould of cryogenic treatment than conventional heat treatment hardness 1-3HRC. Parts with complex shape and size changes in the larger, cryogenic treatment has the production of cracking risk.
    The nitriding treatment of 1.2379 steel:
The mold or the workpiece after nitriding treatment, surface layer with high hardness and corrosion resistance of the hardened layer.

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1.2344 tool steel category and application

    The 1.2344 tool steel correspond to USA H13 steel, it is air cooling hardening of hot work die steel and has been widely used in international. Compared with H11 steel, hot strength of H13 steel is higher, has the very good toughness, thermal fatigue resistance and some wear resistance at medium temperature. It is air quenched at lower austenitizing temperature, heat treatment deformation is small, surface oxidized probability is low, can resist the erosion effect of molten aluminum. Thermal crack is good, ESR steel, compact structure, electric furnace scouring, steel pure quality, with good to the performance.
    1.2344 steel is widely applied to the manufacture of hot extrusion die mandrel, die forging hammer mold, forging press mold, precision forging machine mould, die casting mould of aluminum and copper machine. Suitable for the manufacture of large or complex shape mould.

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What is the P20 mold material

     P20 mold material steel is a plastic die steel is widely used in the world. The good comprehensive mechanical property, high hardenability, can use a larger cross section of the steel to obtain a more uniform hardness, and has a polishing good performance, low surface roughness value. By using the P20 steel manufacturing mold, first quenching and tempering treatment, hardness of 28~35HRC, and then be made into mould after cold working, can be used directly. In this way, not only can ensure the mold using performance, and avoid the deformation caused by heat treatment of die.

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The uses of alloy steel aisi 4130

     Alloy steel aisi 4130 is a kind of chromium molybdenum alloy steel, it is often used in the following manufacturing field:
     1, the material is widely used in piston, screw, a transmission shaft, machine tool, spring, manufacture of injection mold for the push plate, a lock wedge, die set and reset rod, the push rod, the larger diameter core fixing board structure.
     2, 4130 steel also be used for transmission of motion and energy belt transmission, friction wheel transmission, key transmission, harmonic transmission, gear transmission, rope drive and spiral transmission and mechanical transmission, and the shaft parts, such as coupling, clutch and brake etc..

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What are the characteristics of the DIN 1.2738 Tool Steel

    DIN 1.2738 Tool Steel with high hardenability, and good polishing performance, the electric spark machining properties and processing properties of dermatoglyphics. Has been pre hard, don't need to be hardened, suitable for electric spark machining and mirror polishing, good comprehensive mechanical property, its hardness can be increased again to >40HRC.
    1.2738 steel can also be used nitriding, boronizing and other chemical heat treatment, the hardness of the surface after treatment can be increased from 370 ~420HV to 1000HV, the wear resistance and corrosion resistance was significantly improved, the mold may be chrome plated. Die local damage can be used welding method to repair, welding quality is good, can be processed. In the pre-hard state to use, to prevent heat distortion.

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The effect of alloy elements in AISI 4340 round steel

    4340 steel is quenched and tempered steel typical chromium nickel. Because chromium and nickel cooperate, can make the hardenability of the steel is greatly improved, the cross-sectional area of less than 80mm of AISI 4340 round steel can be fully hardened when the oil quenching.
    Nickel alloy elements do not form carbides. Nickel role is when the increase of the content, can increase the strength of steel, and has a good effect on the plasticity and toughness of steel, especially the low temperature impact toughness of high.
    AISI 4340 steel adding chromium and nickel, in addition to enhance the effect of Cr, good effect can also keep nickel, obtain high mechanical properties of. The interaction of chromium and nickel, makes the hardenability of the steel increased much, far more than the role of a single element.
    AISI 4340 steel while joining the 0.15%~0.25%Mo, in order to eliminate the sensitivity of steel on the temper brittleness, but adding quantity is not large, so the high temperature tempering still cooling in water or oil.

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Application of H13 die steel in hot forging die

     The hot forging die usually work in abominable conditions. Need to bear high temperature, high pressure, and some also bear greater impact force. So forging hot die there should be a higher the high temperature strength, thermal fatigue resistance and impact toughness. H13 die steel have higher the high temperature strength, hardness and impact resistance, very suitable for hot forging die.
     In the 1980s, H13 steel be used for hammer forging die, friction screw press forging die, hot die forging press forging die and other in Europe and the United States and japan. China from the beginning of the 1990s, there are some large machinery  factory using H13 steel manufacturing high-speed hammer forging die for the production of gears and blades and the general small and medium-sized forging die, all with satisfactory results.

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The quenching hardness of cold work D2 die steel

     The quenching hardness of cold work D2 die steel is mainly related with temperature and heat preservation time. D2 steel transformed into austenite above 950 °C, the quenching hardness reaches above 52HRC. The hardness of D2 steel and transformed into austenite temperature after quenching has a great relationship with the heat preservation time. In 1010 ~ 1040 °C transformed into austenite, when the holding time is 20min, the hardness value is higher, which reached a maximum hardness 64HRC at 1010 °C. In the same austenitizing temperature, after heat preservation 40min, as the heat preservation time increases, D2 steel hardness declining, which is because the carbides dissolution, resulting in carbon content increased in austenite matrix, thereby reducing Ms point, residual austenite increases after quenching.

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The model number of 1.2080 mould steel in other countries

The 1.2080 mould steel corresponds to other countries steel grade as follows:
Chinese GB standard grades Cr12,
German DIN standard grades X210Cr12,
British Standard BS grades BD3.,
French AFN0R standard grades Z200Cr12,
Italian UNI Standard Grade X210Cr13KU / X250Cr12KU,
Spanish UNE standard grades X210Cr12,
Japanese JIS standard grades SKD1,
China Taiwan CNS standard grades 5KD1,
Korea KS standard grades STD1,
American AISI / SAE Standard Grade D3,
International Organization for Standardization (IS0) standard grades 210Cr12,
Russia R0CT Standard Grade X12.
The 1.2080 steel is the German DIN standard steel material number.

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The reason of quenching crack of 4140 steel plate

     According to the actual production situation, we believe that the main reason of quenching crack of 4140 steel plate is:
     If the use of water as quenching medium, 4140 steel cooling speed is faster at high temperature range, but the cooling speed is slow at low temperature range lower than the Ms temperature. The water temperature rises, the cooling ability decreased at the high temperature range, but the cooling capacity almost unchanged at the low temperatures. When the 4140 steel is cooled to below Ms temperature, martensite phase transition, volume expansion, have second kinds of distortion, second kinds of stress, and the macro structure stress and thermal stress, so prone to quenching crack.
     If the cooling rate is too fast will produce tissue stress when the tempering, lead to 4140 steel generate longitudinal crack.
     The annular crack of steel edge is because of edge nonuniform chamfer lead to stress concentration when quenching.

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What are the properties of 1.2379 tool steel

     The 1.2379 tool steel high carbon and high chromium cold work die steel, be widely used in the international. It is a kind of ledeburite steel, with high hardenability, hardening capacity and high wear resistance; oxidation resistance is good at high temperature, anti rust ability is good after quenching and polishing, the amount of deformation is small after heat treatment. High carbon, high chromium type ledeburite steel, if no special requirements, do not need to add cobalt. The content of molybdenum and vanadium are higher than the 1.2601 steel, so the steel microstructure and grain size of further refinement, increase the hardenability, the strength and toughness of steel, the better comprehensive properties of the steel.
     1.2379 steel used for the manufacturing requirements of high wear resistance of large die complicated cold, such as cold cutting, trimming die, drawing die, screw plate, thread rolling die, binding mode and requirement of high wear-resistant die and punch.

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What are the advantages of 1.2344 ESR steel

     1.2344 ESR steel is use of ESR to smelting, so it has a very high purity, macroscopic and microscopic uniformity is also high.
     When the sulfur content is lower than 0.005%, the transverse toughness becomes high.
     Special smelting method makes the alloy elements distribution is very uniform, can also form a uniform annealing microstructure with globular carbide.
     The maximum tempering hardness is 229HB.
     The 1.2344 steel need good thermally processed to obtain a uniform quenched and tempered tissue, so that the mechanical properties isotropic.
     The steel is made mould can resist the formation and propagation of cracks, especially produced thermal stress when temperature changes.

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About H13 hot work tool steel hardness

    Carbon content determines the hardness of quenched steel substrate of H13 hot work tool steel. According to the curve of relationship between carbon content and hardness of hardened steel in steel, we can know that the quenching hardness of H13 die steel at about 55HRC. For tool steel, a part of carbon into the steel matrix caused by solid solution strengthening the other part of the carbon and alloying element carbides combine to form alloy carbides. For H13 mould steel, this kind of alloy carbides in addition to a small amount of residual, and need it is precipitates in the quenched martensite matrix in the process of tempering, have twice of hardening. Thus the residual alloy carbon compounds and tempered martensite uniform distribution of tissues to determine the performance of hot work die steel.

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The corresponding grade of D2 cold work steel

The corresponding grade of D2 cold work steel:
China GB standard steel grade Cr12Mo1V1,
American ASTM/UNS standard steel grade D2/T30402,
International Organization for Standardization ISO standard steel grade 160CrMoV12,
French NF standard steel 160CrMoV12,
British BS standard steel grade BD2,
Japan JIS standard steel grade SKD11,
Japan HITACHI standard steel grade SLD,
Japan DAIDO standard steel grade DC11,
Japan NAXHI standard steel grade CDS11,
German DIN standard material number 1.2379 steel,
German DIN standard steel grade X155 CrMoV12-1,
Austria BOHLER standard steel grade K110,
Sweden ASSAB standard steel grade XW-41.

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The characteristics of high chromium steel 1.2080

    The high chromium steel 1.2080 is high carbon high chromium type ledeburite, carbon content up to 2%, so the impact toughness is poor, easy to rattle, and easy to form uneven eutectic carbides. There are a lot of elements Cr in 1.2080 steel, mainly formed 7C3 compounds (Cr·Fe), and carburizing type carbide are very few.
    A lot of carbonization logistics into austenite when quenching. After quenching martensite with high hardness. A large amount of dispersed carbides precipitation from martensite after tempering. Because of its hardness is very high, thus improves the wear resistance of steel, Cr and the isothermal transformation curve shifts to the right, thus increase the hardenability of steel. Martensitic transformation point is low, there is a lot of mold steel retained austenite after quenching, reduces the deformation of the mold quenching. High-carbon high chromium 1.2080 steel, with high hardenability, less deformation hardening, high hardness, good wear resistance.

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How to adjust the hardness of alloy steel aisi 4140 products

The alloy steel aisi 4140 products hardness adjustment methods are as follows:
Quenching + tempering: 840 ± 10 °C quenching in water or oil (depending on the complexity of the product shape), 680-700 °C tempering. HB <217.
Quenching + tempering: 840 ± 10 °C oil quenching, then 470 °C tempered. HRC41-45.
Quenching + tempering: 840 ± 10 °C oil quenching, then 480 °C tempered. HRC35-45.
Quenching + tempering: 850 °C oil quenching, then 510 °C tempering. HRC38-42.
Quenching + tempering: 850 °C oil quenching, then 500 °C tempering. HRC40-43.
Quenching + tempering: 850 °C oil quenching, then 510 °C tempered. HRC36-42.
Quenching + tempering: 850 °C oil quenching, then 560 °C tempered. HRC32-36.
Quenching + tempering: 860 °C oil quenching, then 390 °C tempering. HRC48-52.
Softening annealing specification:
Annealing temperature 680 ~ 700 °C, slow cooling in the furnace, the hardness ≤217HBW.
4140 steel quenching and tempering specification:
Quenching temperature 830 ~ 860 °C, oil-cooling or 180 ~ 220 °C salt bath cooling, hardness 52HRC, strength 1780MPa.
Tempering temperature: 100 °C / 200 °C / 300 °C / 400 °C / 500 °C / 600 °C, the hardness of 50HRC / 49HRC / 46HRC / 42HRC / 36HRC / 28HRC.

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What are the uses of DIN 1.2379 cold work steel

     DIN 1.2379 cold work steel is a high carbon high chromium alloy tool steel. After heat treatment has very high hardness and abrasion resistance, and the hardenability is strong, good size stability.
     Used for the production of a variety of silicon steel sheet of high speed blanking die.
     Used in precision stamping dies, cold extrusion die, drawing die, blanking die.
     Used for cutting sheet material efficient scissors, deep drawing die and tube drawing die.
     1.2379 steel is used for the complex and easy deformation mould. High wear resistance and long service life of cold punching mould.
     Used for the excellent wear resistance and good toughness cold working die, can be used for embossing dies, cold forging die.
     Used for heavy stamping die, cold shear blade, thread rolling die etc..
     DIN 1.2379 cold work steel is used for cold heading dies, pottery clay mold etc..
     Used for wear-resistant plastic mould.

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How to eliminate the stress of 1.2344 steel parts

     After rough machining, sensitive or large processing capacity of 1.2344 steel parts, also must carry on stress-relief annealing processing, to eliminate processing stress and straightening stress. Because the stress can cause not to allow change in size, deformation and cracks in quenching process.
     Eliminate stress slowly heating in the low temperature (about 100~150K/h), highest do not exceed 300 degrees C. It is best to use the electric heating furnace with program control and circulating air. After heating, the furnace can also control slow cooling, does not require special protective measures to prevent annealing 1.2344 steel oxide skin or surface damage occurs.

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What are the characteristics of mould steel AISI P20

     P20 steel is suitable for making the plastic mold and die casting mould of low melting point metal.
     The physical properties of mould steel AISI P20 with uniform hardness, good polishing performance and light etching performance. And excellent processing properties of P20 die steel. Therefore it is suitable for TV former shell, telephone, water dispenser, vacuum cleaners and other plastic mould.
     The P20 die steel with high purity by vacuum degassing refining  treatment, more suited to the requirements of polish or etch processing of plastic mold. Such as: TV cabinet, refrigerator inner shell etc..
     P20 die steel pre hardened 285-330HB (30-36HRC), no need of heat treatment can be directly used for molding processing, greatly shortens the construction period, saving its operating costs. And P20 steel has the characteristics of good size stability, pre hardened steel can meet the general use of demand, the service life of the die is 50W mode. Applicable to thermoplastic plastic injection mold, extrusion mold.
     P20 die steel microstructure is compact after the rolling process. You can found P20 mould steel without small hole defects by ultrasonic inspection. So it can be used to make good sealing mould, such as washing machines, buckets, and so on.

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The mechanical properties of 4130 material

     The 4130 is a kind of chrome molybdenum steel, the content of Cr and Mo is relatively high. The 4130 material is relatively hard, the tensile strength and yield strength is two times that of 20# steel, is 1.5 times that of 45# steel. Because the proportion of carbon is moderate, especially suitable for welding.
     Early chromium molybdenum materials scarce, 4130 mostly used in aircraft landing gear. Later, some professional bicycle frame also began to use this material, which is a big selling point, now largely been replaced by a high-strength aluminum alloy and carbon fiber materials. But for the rollcage and steel frame structure of off-road racing, the 4130 steel is still the best choice, in ensuring equal or even greater strength under the premise, the 4130 frame can do more light.
     But note that the 4130 material strength is high, after hot rolling if not temper or normalizing treatment, the tensile strength is more than 1000MPa, the yield strength is very high, the elongation of less than 10%, the result is unable to bend, pipe will break in the pipe, and the steel plate in bending of less than 90 degrees to start cracking. Correctly handle the processing after appearing in the process of stress will be basically eliminated, and has obtained the good toughness at the same time ensure strength, when the impact of the stress point will have instant deformation, but will soon recover, even if there is no permanent deformation in cracking the case, ensure the safety of the car.
     After the correct treatment, stress generated in the processing process will be basically eliminated, not only guarantee the strength, meanwhile, made a very good toughness, When subjected to violent impact , stress points have instant deformation, but will soon recover, even if its permanent deformation, also cannot appear the dehiscence the situation, ensure the safety of the racing car.

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How to heat treatment of DIN 1.2738 die steel

1. Annealing:
     Annealing temperature: 710 ~ 740 °C, holding time is decided by the thickness of the DIN 1.2738 die steel, one hour per 25mm. Colding in furnace after thermal insulation.
2. Destressing:
     Heating temperature: 600 °C (annealed condition), 550 °C (quenching and tempering state), holding time is decided by the thickness of the 1.2738 steel, one hour per 50mm. Colding in furnace after thermal insulation.
3. Quenching and tempering:
     Preheating temperature 500 ~ 600 °C, quenching temperature 840 ~ 880 °C, holding 30min (the mold have to quenching in the protective gas to prevent oxidation and decarbonization). Oil cooling, cooling to 50 ~ 70 °C, immediately tempered.
     Tempering holding time is decided by the thickness of the 1.2738 steel mould, one hour per 25mm, at least 2h. Tempering temperature: 180 °C / 200 °C / 300 °C / 400 °C / 500 °C / 600 °C, the hardness: 52HRC / 51HRC / 48 HRC / 46HRC / 42HRC / 34HRC.
4. Induction hardening:
     The DIN 1.2738 die steel may be treated by flame or induction hardening to increase the surface hardness to 50HRC. Colding in air after hardening. Small mould can use common quenching medium, immediately tempered after hardened, tempering temperature 180 ~ 200 °C.
5. Nitriding:
     Nitriding temperature + nitriding time: 525 ° C + 20h, the nitride layer thickness 0.30mm; 525 °C + 30h, the nitride layer thickness 0.35mm; 525 °C + 50h, the nitride layer thickness 0.50mm.
6. Nitrocarburizing:
     570 °C to maintain nitrocarburizing 2h, the mold surface hardness is about 700HV, nitrided layer depth is about 0.1mm.

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What are the uses of SAE 4340 steel

     The SAE 4340 steel is a kind of special alloy steel, and it contains the main alloy elements are: molybdenum, nickel and chromium. Uses this steel manufacture the product to have the higher tensile strength, and the thermal stability and toughness are higher. That is why this steel is used to manufacture aircraft, automotive and other general engineering components. Molybdenum can reduce the temper brittleness.
     At present, the steel is also used in the manufacture of gear shaft, transmission shaft and car parts and gear lever. Tensile strength of the steel is higher than the 4140 steel, so can be get more strength. The last two digits of the carbon content of steel. This means that, when it is 4340 it contains carbon 40%, and when it is 4130 steel contains carbon 30%.

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How to heat treatment for H13 mould steel

     1. Preheat treatment. The market of H13 mould steel are after annealing heat treatment in steel mill, to ensure that it has a good metallurgical structure, appropriate hardness, good processability, don't need annealing once more. But after forging in the processing factory, the original microstructure and properties were destroyed, an increase of forging stress, must be re annealing.
Isothermal spheroidizing annealing process: 860 ~ 890 °C heating insulation 2h, cooled to 740 to 760 °C isothermal 4h, furnace cooling to 500 DEG baked.
     2. Quenching and tempering. The mould quenching process specification (requirements good toughness):the heating temperature is 1020 ~ 1050 °C, oil cooling or air cooling, hardness of 54 ~ 58HRC. If the requirements of the H13 steel good hot hardness, the quenching process specification is: the heating temperature is 1050 ~ 1080 °C, oil cooling, hardness of 56 ~ 58HRC. Recommendation tempering temperature: 530 ~ 560 °C, hardness of 48 ~ 52HRC; tempering temperature 560 ~ 580 °C, hardness of 47 ~ 49HRC. Tempering should be performed twice. Tempering at 500 °C, the peak of tempering hardening occurs, the tempering hardness is highest, hardness about 55HRC, but the toughness is worst. Therefore, the tempering process should avoid 500 °C advisable. According to the mold use need, tempering at 540 ~ 620 °C is  better. Quenching should be performed preheated twice (600 ~ 650 °C, 800 ~ 850 °C), to reduce the thermal stress in the heating process.
     3. Chemical heat treatment. H13 mould steel if the gas nitriding or nitrocarburizing can make the mould is further strengthened, but the nitriding temperature should not be higher than the tempering temperature, to ensure that the core strength is not reduced, thereby improving the service life of the mould.

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The performance of AISI D2 tool steel

     The wear resistance of AISI D2 tool steel is high, small deformation, the carbon content as high as 1.5%, chromium content up to 11.5%. After heat treatment, the hardness of D2 steel is up to 60HRC, but its ductility, toughness, resistance to rust ability are relatively weak, steel surface to mirror polished is not easy.
     Along with the cold stamping products to the development of high precision and high efficiency, multi species, requirement of die steel has good abrasion resistance and toughness. Compared with Cr12MoV steel, the D2 steel has increased by Mo and V in chemical composition, changing the cast structure of steel, improve the morphology of ledeburite, its strength and toughness and wear resistance is better than that of Cr12MoV steel, improve the service life of mould.
     The yield point and plastic deformation resistance of AISI D2 tool steel is higher than Cr12MoV steel, so the forging properties and thermal plastic forming is slightly worse than Cr12MoV. Cr12MolV, American D2, Japan SKD11, three although the same chemical composition, but the performance difference is very big. After heat treatment, Cr12MolV color slightly orange red, deformation is very large, prone to fatigue fracture at actual use; D2 steel is cold white color, hardness higher than SKD11, the toughness is lower than SKD11, high stress is easy to appear the tiny gap; SKD11 bright luster and the best overall performance.

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The advantages and disadvantages of DIN 1.2080 steel

    The 1.2080 steel is a kind of cold work die steel of high carbon and high chromium. The  content of C and Cr is very high, respectively C 2.00%~2.30% and Cr 11.00%~13.00% (mass fraction). DIN 1.2080 steel belongs to the ledeburite steel, so it has a very high hardenability, hardened and wear resistance, quenching deformation of small. But when the carbide heterogeneity, Its deformation are multi direction and irregular, its main drawback is poor organization. Uneven carbide is difficult to improve by heat treatment method, unless use powder metallurgy to manufacturing. Impact toughness is poor, thermal conductivity and high temperature plasticity is poor, when thermal processing should pay attention to heating and forging process.
    The 1.2080 steel is one of the international common cold work die steel, but in recent years has gradually been better steel replaced, such as Cr12MoV, Cr12Mo1V1 or matrix steel. The same type of foreign steel is 210Cr12 (ISO), Japan SKD1 (JIS), America D3 (AlSI/SAE) etc..
    1.2080 steel mainly for High wear resistance and impact load is smaller cold punching mould parts (the convex and concave mold, cold extrusion concave mold etc.), because of its obvious advantages and disadvantages, the use of limited.

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